Textual Evidence

Textual evidence is evidence from a text (fiction or nonfiction) that you can use to illustrate your ideas and support your arguments.

Types of Evidences

1. Statistical Evidence

Statistical evidence is the kind of data people tend to look for first when trying to prove a point.  That’s not surprising when you consider how prevalent it is in today’s society.   Remember those McDonald’s signs that said “Over 1 billion served”? How about those Trident chewing gum commercials that say “4 out of 5 dentists recommend chewing sugarless gum”? Every time you use numbers to support a main point, you’re relying on statistical evidence to carry your argument. 

2. Testimonial Evidence

Testimonial evidence is another type of evidence that is commonly turned to by people trying to prove a point.  Commercials that use spokespersons to testify about the quality of a company’s product, lawyers who rely on eye-witness accounts  to win a case, and students who quote an authority in their essays are all using testimonial evidence. 

3. Anecdotal Evidence

Often dismissed as untrustworthy and meaningless, anecdotal evidence is one of the more underutilized types of evidence.  Anecdotal evidence is evidence that is based on a person’s observations of the world.   It can actually be very useful for disproving generalizations because all you need is one example that contradicts a claim.  

Be careful when using this type of evidence to try and support your claims.  One example of a non-native English speaker who has perfect grammar does NOT prove that ALL non-native English speakers have perfect grammar.  All the anecdote can do is disprove the claim that all immigrants who are non-native English speakers have terrible grammar.  

You CAN use this type of evidence to support claims, though, if you use it in conjunction with other types of evidence.  Personal observations can serve as wonderful examples to introduce a topic and build it up – just make sure you include statistical evidence so the reader of your paper doesn’t question whether your examples are just isolated incidents. 

4. Analogical Evidence

The last type of evidence is called analogical evidence.  It is also underutilized, but this time for a reason.  Analogies are mainly useful when dealing with a topic that is under-researched.  If you are on the cutting edge of an issue, you’re the person breaking new ground.  When you don’t have statistics to refer to or other authorities on the matter to quote, you have to get your evidence from somewhere.  Analogical evidence steps in to save the day. 

Take the following example: You work for a company that is considering turning some land into a theme park. On that land there happens to be a river that your bosses think would make a great white-water rafting ride.  They’ve called on you to assess whether or not that ride would be a good idea.  

Since the land in question is as yet undeveloped, you have no casualty reports or statistics to refer to.  In this case, you can look to other rivers with the same general shape to them, altitude, etc.  and see if any white-water rafting casualties have occurred on those rivers.  Although the rivers are different, the similarities between them should be strong enough to give credibility to your research.  Realtors use the same type of analogical evidence when determining the value of a home. 

Methods in Citing Textual Evidences

1. Referencing
Referencing is mentioning a particular event or action in the text. It’s useful when you want to point to point something out to support a point you’re trying to make but don’t feel a summary, paraphrase or direct quote is necessary.

2. Summarizing
Summarizing is putting someone else’s words into your own words. It’s useful when you want to point to a larger section of text but do not need the details of the original text. Summarizing literary fiction usually occurs in the introduction of a literary analysis essay.  It is rarely used in the body of a literary analysis essay other than to provide some context when it is needed. Summaries should be written in your own words, include a page number, and be followed by a statement explaining its importance and connection to the topic sentence. 

3.  Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is also putting someone else’s words into your own words. It is useful when you need more detail than a summary but less than a direct quote. A paraphrase focuses concisely on a single main idea. Paraphrasing should be written in your own words, include a page number, and be followed by a statement explaining its importance and connection to the topic sentence. 

4.  Quoting
Quotations illuminate your ideas and support your argument using the exact words from the original text. It’s useful when you want to capture the particular language an author uses.  It is the most convincing evidence of the four types as they add credibility to the point you are trying to make.. As with all the textual evidence, make sure you explain how the quote is connected to your point — let the reader know the significance of the quotations you use. 

There are three levels of direct quoting:

• Specific details—quoting words or phrases
• Brief quotes—quoting 1-3 sentences
• Lengthy quotes—quoting 4 or more sentences at one time (you will unlikely use this type of quoting in this course)

Specific Detail
Specific details use words or phrases from the text to support your argument. Details should be short—a word or phrase–and they should be incorporated into your own sentences.

Jack was “bent double” with his “nose only a few inches from the humid earth” tracking the trail of the pig “dog-like…on all fours” (Golding 48)

Brief quotations
Brief quotations are fewer than three lines and should be carefully introduced and integrated into your writing. Put quotation marks around all briefly quoted material, as in this example:

On the wall of his room is a “large tinted photograph of his dead wife, who, if Masses willed and paid for out of her own estate could do it, was in Heaven” (99).

Lengthy quotations
Lengthy quotations (also called block quotes) are used when you want to quote more than three lines of text.  Think carefully before using this type of quotation and make sure the entire section you want to quote directly supports your argument.  Block quotes should be single-spaced and indented four spaces from the left margin, and should not use quote marks.

Steinbeck writes:

When the servant come in bearing the message that Juana and Kino have arrived, the doctor sat up in his high bed.  He had on his dressing gown of red watered silk that had come from Paris, a little tight over the chest now if it was buttoned.  On his lap was a silver tray with a silver chocolate pot and a tiny cup of eggshell china, so delicate that it looked silly when he lifted  it with his big hands (701).

Sources:

http://www.istianjinelearning.org/joeschaaf/seec/5-how-to-use-direct-quotations/

http://www.writingsimplified.com/2009/10/4-types-of-evidence.html