Oral Communication in Context Curriculum Guide

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Forms of Communication

1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION - an interaction in which words are used to relay a message

- it uses language (a systematic arrangement of letters, figures, symbols, and words)

Characteristics of Language

• arbitrary
• ambiguous 
• abstract

Factors to consider in communicating verbally

• Appropriateness
• Brevity
• Clarity
• Ethics
• Vividness

2. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION - an interaction where behavior is used to convey and represent meanings

Categories of Nonverbal Communication

• VISUAL - SIGHT
• AUDITORY – SOUND
• TACTILE – TOUCH
• OLFACTORY – SMELL
• GUSTATORY – TASTE

OTHER FORMS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

• PARALINGUISTICS -  study of vocal signals beyond basic verbal speech; pitch / tone, fluency, volume, accent, speech rate 
• PROXEMICS - the use of human space in communication
• HAPTICS - communication through sense of touch
• CHRONEMICS - study of the role of time in communication
• KINESICS - communication through body language

CATEGORIES OF GESTURE (Seiler, 1988)

• EMBLEMS - are non-verbal signals with a verbal equivalent.
• ILLUSTRATORS - create a visual image and support the spoken message. They tend to be subconscious movements
• REGULATORS - body movements that control, adjust, and sustain the flow of a conversation
• (may refer to feedback)
• AFFECT DISPLAYS - tend to be movements, usually facial gestures, displaying specific emotions.
• ADAPTORS - include changes in posture and other movements made with little awareness.

Factors to consider in nonverbal communication

• Eye Contact
• Facial Expressions
• Space
• Posture
• Tones and Sounds

3. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION - printed messages which may be constructed in a long period of time and often asynchronous

4. VISUAL COMMUNICATION - transmission of ideas or information using symbols and imagery

5. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION - transmission of ideas or information encoded digitally as discrete signals and electronically transferred to recipients

Sources:
Oral Communication in Context (Sipacio & Balgos, 2016)
https://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/bookhub/5?e=carpenter-ch12_s03
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-visual-communication-definition-history-theory-examples.html
https://www.slideshare.net/lineking/digital-communication-system

https://www.thoughtco.com/paralinguistics-paralanguage-term-1691568

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Introduction to Broadcast Journalism | Part 1: Radio Broadcasting

Course Description:

Broadcast Journalism is a subdivision of Journalism, an Elective Course offered to ABM, HUMSS, and STEM strands in the Senior High School. This elective course introduces a groundwork of radio and television broadcasting focusing on the fundamentals of news production and presentation, infomercial, journalism ethics, and technical application.

Course Objectives:

After accomplishing the requirements of the course, the students will be able to:

• develop understanding of the basic concepts of broadcast journalism;
• participate in either radio or television production teams; and 
• produce a radio or television news program. 

History of Radio Broadcast

United States:
experimental station by Reginald Aubrey Fessenden at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, on Christmas Eve, 1906

Philippines:
establishment of KZKZ (AM) in Manila, Philippines by Henry Herman in Manila in 1924

National Telecommunications Commission assigns the following call sign prefixes from the international series to Philippine broadcasting stations depending on the location of their license:

• DZ & DW for Luzon, except DZ for Palawan
• DY for the Visayas, including Palawan and Masbate
• DX for Mindanao

What is a CALL SIGN?

Unique designation (prefixes) for a transmitter station for TV and radio allocated by International Telecommunication Union

Regulation of Radio Stations in the Philippines

• Radio stations back then were not regulated until the year 1931. The Radio Control Board was instigated under the US colonial government. The regulating agency took care of the license applications and frequency allocation.
• KBP came only in April 7, 1973.

AM vs FM

• Amplitude - the maximum extent of a vibration or oscillation, measured from the position of equilibrium.
• Frequency - the rate at which something occurs or is repeated over a particular period of time or in a given sample.

What is the heart of every radio news program?
Answer: NEWS

What makes a story newsworthy?

• PROXIMITY
• PROMINENCE
• IMMEDIACY
• ODDITY
• HUMAN INTEREST
• EMOTIONS
• CONSEQUENCE
• CONFLICT

WRITING THE LEAD

• The Five W’s and H
• Conflict
• Specificity
• Brevity
• Active sentences

TYPES OF LEAD

1. Straight Lead /Summary/Digest
2. Also called the “summary” lead, this is by far the most common and traditional version; it should be used in most cases. It is a brief summary, containing most of the Five W’s and H in one sentence.
3. Bullet Lead / Punch / Cartridge / Capsule - blunt, explosive, short statement to summarize an article ; short sentence or phrase is used in a straightforward manner; sued in an important news
4. Anecdotal Lead - uses a quick, relevant story to draw in the reader. The anecdote must help enhance the article’s broader point, and you must explain the connection to that point in the first few sentences following the lead.
5. Staccato Lead - short, clipped words, phrases and sentences , sometimes separated with dashes and dots; creates a certain mood in the news story; descriptive
6. Question Lead - used when story has direct impact or relevance to the public
7. Zinger Lead -  dramatic and attention-grabbing. Although it has a strong tone, it requires a hard set of facts to back it up.
8. Statement/Direct Quotation Lead - used when direct quotation is striking, remarkable and important
9. Contrast Lead - compares extremes: big – little, comedy – tragedy, old age –youth, past – present, love – hatred 

How to Write Broadcast News Copy

1. Keep It Short and Simple (KISS)
2. Keep It Conversational
3. Use One Main Idea Per Sentence
4. Use the Active Voice
5. Leave Out Unnecessary Details

Read the examples here: https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-broadcast-news-copy-2074314

When writing your lead, leave out:

1. The ordinary
2. A name if it is unfamiliar
3. An age if it is not interesting
4. Addresses

AVOID:

1. A Jammed lead where you try to get too much information into the first sentence
2. A Cliché lead using worn out expressions
3. A Question lead where you ask the audience to think - the audience doesn´t want to think, they want to be told
4. A Quote lead where you lead with someone else´s words
5. A time - remember the news gets recycled
6. A number - people will forget the number or not be paying attention by the time they know what that number meant

Sources:
https://radio.xtreamlab.net/faqa.html
http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-amplitude.htm
https://www.britannica.com/technology/broadcasting
https://www.engineersgarage.com/contribution/difference-between-am-and-fm-modulation
https://www.radioconnection.com/glossary/e/
https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-broadcast-news-copy-2074314
http://www.newscript.com/leads.html
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring09/selepak_a/lead.html
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/735/05/
https://online.pointpark.edu/public-relations-and-advertising/how-to-write-a-lead/

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Types of Academic Texts - Study Notes

Academic Writing Consolidated Study Notes

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Data Gathering Procedures for Qualitative Research Design

I. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

What is Participant Observation?

• involves the researcher "getting to know" the people they're studying by entering their world and participating in that world
• You put yourself "in the shoes" of the people you're studying in an attempt to experience events in the way they experience them
• Usually involves observation over an extended period of time 

Observer:

• gains a deeper understanding of the group being observed 
• maintains objectivity to  understand, analyze and explain the social world under study

The researcher engaged in participant observation tries to learn what life is like for an “insider” while remaining, inevitably, an “outsider.”

Types of Participant Observation

1. Covert Participant Observation - researchers do not inform members of the group the reason for their presence; keeping their true intentions secret; this automatically raises ethical concerns

Advantages of Covert Participant Observation

1. The behavior of those being observed remains unaltered – i.e. avoids the ‘observer effect’
2. The observer may be allowed access to ‘privileged’ inside information and decision making of the group
3. Observer gains access to groups who would otherwise not allow observation 

Disadvantages of Covert Observation

1. having to use deceit
2. researcher may form connections / friendships with members of  the group
3. researcher ‘goes native’ – i.e. sympathises with / identifies with the group and loses objectivity
4. becoming involved in criminal or dangerous activities when a ‘deviant’ group is being studied 
5. having to act out forms of behavior which observer finds personally unethical or distasteful

2. Overt Participant Observation - the researchers are open about the reason for their presence in the field of study since the researchers are given permission by the group to conduct their research

Advantages of Overt Observation

1. the avoidance of problems of ethics in that the group are aware of the researcher's role 
2. the group is being observed in its 'natural setting' 
3. data may also be openly recorded
4.  problems of 'going native' are avoided 

Disadvantages of  Overt Observation

1. Observer effect, where the behaviour of those under study may alter due to the presence of the researcher

Strengths of Participant Observation

1. Allows for insights into contexts, relationships, behavior
2. Provides information previously unknown to researchers that is crucial for project design , data collection, and interpretation of data

How do I document what I learn  during participant observation?

Documentation of participant observation data consists of :

1. FIELD NOTES

• recording of all accounts and observations in a field notebook
• Informal conversation and interaction should be recorded in the field notes, in as much detail as possible
• Handwritten notes, later converted into computer files, are often the only way to document certain participant observation activities, such as informal or spontaneous interviews, observation, and generally moving about in the field. 
• Notes from participant observation – like those from interviews and focus groups – are called “field notes,” and they are written directly into field notebooks. 

Tips in taking field notes:

1. Begin each notebook entry with the date, time, place, and type of data collection event.
2. Take notes strategically.
3. Use shorthand (method of rapid writing by means of abbreviations and symbols, used especially for taking dictation)
4. Cover a range of observations. 

2. AUDIO AND VIDEO RECORDING

How should I behave during participant observation?

• The most important behavioral principle in participant observation is to be discreet. 
• Try not to stand out or to affect the natural flow of activity. 
• One way to do this is to behave in a way similar to the people around you, such as praying in a religious setting or drinking in a bar. 

II. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

What is an in-depth interview?

• An in-depth interview is an open-ended, discovery-oriented method that is well suited for describing both program processes and outcomes from the perspective of the target audience or key stakeholder. 
• usually conducted face-to-face and involve one interviewer and one participant. 
• the goal of the interview is to deeply explore the respondent's point of view, feelings and perspectives. 
• involves not only asking questions, but the systematic recording and documenting of responses coupled with intense probing for deeper meaning and understanding of the responses. 

Key Features of In-depth Interviews

1. Open-ended Questions:
Questions should be worded so that respondents cannot simply answer yes or no, but must expound on the topic.

2. Semi-structured Format:
Pre-planned questions are asked during the interview but you must also allow questions to flow naturally, based on information provided by the respondent. You should not insist upon asking specific questions in a specific order.

3.Seek understanding and interpretation:
You should try to interpret what you are hearing, as well as seek clarity and a deeper understanding from the respondent throughout the interview. (Interpret the answer and clarify)

4. Conversational:
You should be conversational, but your role is primarily that of a listener. There should be smooth transitions from one topic to the next.

5.Record responses:
The responses are recorded, typically with audiotape and written notes (i.e., field notes)
You observe and record non-verbal behaviors on the field notes as they occur.

6. Record reflections:
You record your views and feelings immediately after the interview as well

The Researcher’s Role

• engage with participants by posing questions in a neutral manner
• listen attentively to participants’ responses (Active Listening)
• ask follow-up questions and probe based on those responses 
• do not lead participants according to any preconceived notions
• never encourage participants to provide particular answers by expressing approval or disapproval of what they say
• Do not rush the respondent and allow him/her to speak freely while guiding the conversation to cover important issues.

STAGES OF IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

1. Thematizing
clarify the purpose of the interviews and determine what you want to find out. Make an Outline of the questions and sub questions.

2. Designing
prepare the interview guide (a list of questions and probing follow-ups that guide you through the interview)

Types of Questions

1. Probe questions
2. Follow-up questions
3. Exit questions

Examples: 
Probe Questions:

• How familiar are you with our SHS tutorial program?
• How often do you attend our programs?
• What is your favorite program?

Follow-Up Questions:

• What are your favorite and least favorite aspects of Tutorial Program A?
• What are your favorite and least favorite aspects of Tutorial Program B?
• What influences whether you attend a program?
• If we were to close a program, which one should we close and why?

Exit Question:

• Is there anything else you’d like to say about our programs?

CAVEAT! 
As you prepare the guide, you should anticipate and organize the issues you plan to explore. However, if the discussion warrants it, you must be willing to transition or change directions during the interview. 

3. Interviewing
3 PARTS

1. Introduction – establish rapport, address confidentiality issue, ask permission to take notes and record
2. Setting the mood – ask ease questions such as, ‘How are you today? How's schooling? How’s your family?’
3. Interview proper - Get down to the prepared questions and probing

PROBING: Direct questions

• “What do you mean when you say . . .?”
• “Why do you think . . .?”
• “How did this happen?”
• “How did you feel about . . .?”
• “What happened then?”
• “Can you tell me more?”
• “Can you please elaborate?”
• “I’m not sure I understand X. . . . Would you explain that to me?”
• “How did you handle X?”
• “How did X affect you?”
• “Can you give me an example of X?”

PROBING: Indirect probes

• Neutral verbal expressions such as “uh huh,” “interesting,” and “I see”
• Verbal expressions of empathy, such as,“I can see why you say that was difficult for you”
• Mirroring technique, or repeating what the participant  said, such as, “So you were 19 when you had your first child . . .”
• Culturally appropriate body language  or gestures, such as nodding in acknowledgment 

4. Transcribing
involves creating a written text of the interviews.

Steps :

1. Bring together all of your information-gathering approaches into one written form
2. Write out each question and response (verbatim) from the interview using recorded audiotape and notes including side notes (observations, feelings and reflections) *side notes are differentiated from the respondent's notes, typically by highlighted text
3. Study and review the transcription
4. Denote the important information related to the study

5. Analyzing / Clarifying

• involves determining the meaning in the information gathered in relation to the purpose of the study. 
• If more questions are raised that need clarity in order to serve the purpose of the study, then another in-depth interview is warranted to examine the issue more thoroughly. 

6. Verifying

• involves checking the credibility and validity of the information gathered. 
• Triangulation is used as a means of checks and balances.
• use multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of information
• have a colleague read the transcripts to compare interpretation of meaning 

7. Reporting

• share what you have learned from the in-depth interviews with other internal and external stakeholders. 
• Some reporting could be in the form of a formal written report such as the Report of Accomplishment or published Needs Assessment findings. 

III. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

What is a Focus Group Discussion?

• is a qualitative research method in the social sciences, with a particular emphasis and application in the developmental program evaluation sphere.
• predetermined semi-structured interview led by a skilled moderator

Characteristics of Focus Groups

• Participants
• Have something in common
• 2-8 people per group
• Carefully consider demographics of participants 
• Repeat each demographic group 3-4 times for comparison
• First name only on name tags for each person
• Elements that Affect 
• Intercultural Interaction 
• Language
• Nonverbal behavior
• Communication style
• Values
• Tips for Communicating Across Languages
• Speak slowly and finish your words and sentences
• Learn basics of your foreign native language and culture (verbal and non-verbal)
• Avoid using idioms and or slangs
• Avoid statements such as “You aren’t making yourself clear”
• Summarize your ideas periodically
• Avoid interrupting your counterpart if she or he is speaking
• Try to have materials translated into your counterpart’s language
• Use qualified interpreters to avoid costly misunderstandings
• Environment
• Comfortable atmosphere
• Circle seating
• Tape recording Considerations
• It is optional
• Need for Completely Accurate Transcript
• Availability of Resources
• Ability To Get Consent
• Affect on Participation
• Question Development
• Everyone is involved in development
• Use open-ended questions
• Avoid dichotomous (yes/no) questions
• Use “think back” questions
• Question Development
• Avoid jargon
• Use questions that get participants involved
• Make a list
• Fill in the blank
• Choices
• Drawing
• Probes
• Ask question or solicits information
• Focus your question
• Determine common probes ahead of time
• May add impromptu probes to pursue a relevant thread
• Question Sequence
• Questions are typically sequenced like a funnel
• Opening question
• Introductory questions
• Transition questions
• Key questions
• Ending Question
• Reflects the entire discussion
• “Of all the things we discussed, what is the most important to you?”

• Role /Characteristics of the Moderator
• mentally prepared
• Uses purposeful small talk
• Provides a smooth introduction of 3-5 minutes
• Uses pauses and probes
• Controls his/her reactions
• Uses subtle group control
• Uses appropriate conclusion
• Helps the Assistant Moderator get notes
• Above all else, the moderator should make eye contact and be respectful. These build trust and the belief that input from the group is valued.
• Assistant Moderators may:
• Welcome participants
• Operate recording equipment (if used)
• Take notes
• Observe participants
• Debrief with moderator after session
• Give feedback or assists with data analysis and reporting
• Data Analysis
• Immediately after the group
• Draw a diagram of the seating arrangement and note key characteristics of participants (e.g. hair color, gender,clothing)
• Moderator and assistant moderator should debrief the session noting themes, hunches and ideas
• Compare and contrast this group with others that have already been conducted
• If used, have tape recording transcribed
• Review notes and fill in any gaps
• Prepare a brief report of this group in a question-by-question format
• Ask for feedback from assistant moderator
• Debriefing 
• a meeting that is held after each focus group to discuss all aspects of the session
• Immediately after the session, ask the note-taker to read the notes aloud. 
• The moderator and other project participants and observers should discuss the following:
• What did we learn?
• What in our planning was confirmed?
• What did we find surprising?
• What seems to be our next step?

Source: https://blog.socialcops.com/academy/resources/4-data-collection-techniques-ones-right/

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Field Data Abbreviation

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RESEARCH DESIGN

EMERGENT DESIGN
A design that develops as the researcher makes ongoing decisions reflecting what has already been learned

Lincoln & Cuba (1985) – not researcher laziness or sloppiness – but rather desire to base inquiry on realities and viewpoints of those under study

Key: realities and viewpoints that are NOT KNOWN or UNDERSTOOD AT THE OUTSET

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design

• Flexible, elastic, capable of adjusting
• Merging together of various data collection strategies
• Holistic, understand the whole
• Researcher is intensely involved
• Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate subsequent strategies and to determine when field work is done

Qualitative Research Designs: Closer Look

1. Ethnography
2. Phenomenology
3. Grounded Theory
4. Biography Research
5. Case Study
6. Historical Study

ETHNOGRAPHY

• Research tradition in anthropology 
• Ethnoscience (Cognitive Anthropology): focuses on the cognitive world of a culture – semantic rules and shared meanings that shape behavior
• Provides a framework for studying meanings, patterns, and experiences defined by a cultural group in a holistic fashion
• Focus: the culture of a group of people
• Assumption: Every human group evolves a culture that guides members view of the world and the way they structure their experiences
• Aim: to learn from rather than study members of a cultural group

Two perspectives:

1. Emic – insider’s view, the way the members of a culture envision their world
2. Etic - outsiders’ interpretation of the experiences of that culture – strive to get at cultural experiences that members do not talk about or may not even be consciously aware

CONS

• Extensive field work
• Typically labor intensive
• Time consuming
• Researcher as instrument - to study a culture it requires a certain level of intimacy – needs to be developed – become one within the culture

Three types of information:

1. Cultural behavoir
2. Cultural artifacts
3. Cultural speech

Sources of information – in-depth interviews, records, charts, observations and other types of physical evidence are used

PHENOMENOLOGY
Philosophical Orientation

• World is shaped by the self and also shapes the self
• The person is a self within a body
• Person is referred to as “embodied” – our bodies provide the possibility for the concrete actions of self in the world
• The body, the world and the concerns, unique to each person, are the “context” within which that person can be understood

Assumption:
-Believes that truths about reality are grounded in peoples’ lived experiences
-Human existence is “meaningful” and “interesting”

Two Schools of Thought:
1. Descriptive phenomenology
Edmund Husserl
Epistemology
one’s directed awareness or consciousness of an object or event
everyday conscious experiences were described

2. Interpretive phenomenology
Martin Heidegger
Ontology (nature of being)
seeks meanings that are embedded in everyday occurrences

Four aspects of the lived experience:

1. SPATIALITY - lived space
2. CORPOREALITY - lived body 
3. TEMPORALITY – lived time 
4. RELATIONALITY – lived human relations

Data sources:

• In-depth conversations
• Researcher helps the participant to describe lived experiences without leading the discussion
• Two or more interviews/conversations are needed
• Usually small number of participants 
• May use participation, observation and introspective reflection

GROUNDED THEORY

• Is an inductive research technique developed for health-related topics by Glaser & Strauss (1967)
• Emerged from the discipline of sociology
• “Grounded” – means the theory developed from the research is grounded or has it roots in the data from which is was derived 
• Focus: is the evolution of a social experience – the social and psychological stages that characterize a particular event of process
• Methodology:

1. does not begin with a focused research question
2. the question emerges from the data

• Constant Comparison: is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories and to identify the basic problem
• Categories that are elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier so that “commonalities” and “variations” can be determined
• Categories can be “condensed” and “collapsed”
• Data Sources:

1. in-depth interviews are most common
2. Observational methods
3. Existing documents
4. Usually a sample of 25 to 50 informants

BIOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH also known as Narrative Research

In narrative research, researchers:

• describe the lives of individuals
• collect and tell stories about people’s lives
• write narratives of individual experiences. 

As a distinct form of qualitative research, a narrative typically focuses on studying a single person
A story in narrative research is a first‑person oral telling or retelling of an individual

STRUCTURE:
Stories have a beginning, middle, and end

DEVELOPMENT:

• predicament, conflict, or struggle
• protagonist or character
• sequence with implied causality (a plot

RESEARCHER’S TASK

• Re-stories the individual stories
• researcher gathers stories and analyzes them for elements of the story
• researcher rewrites the story to place it in a chronological sequence
• Re-storying provides a causal link among ideas 
• Validates the accuracy of the report

Potential issues:

• Story authentic? (“Faking the data” possible)
• Is the story “real?” (Participants may not be able to tell the “real story”)
• Who “owns” the story? (Does the researcher have permission to share it?)
• Is participant’s voice lost?
• Does the researcher gain at the expense of the participant?

CASE STUDY
“Case study is a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon with its real life context using multiple sources of evidence.” (Yin, 1981)

ADVANTAGES

• Intensive study 
• Locate deviant cases - method to study rare phenomena
• method to challenge theoretical assumptions 
• alternative or complement to the group focus of psychology 

Potential issues

• Critics of the case study method often claim:
• Studying a small number of cases is insufficient for establishing reliability or generality of findings;
• The intense involvement of the researcher in the study of the case could bias the findings; 
• Some critics suggest case study research is useful only as an exploratory tool or for establishing a hypothesis;
• Some would claim it is unscientific.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

PROCESS:
synthesizing data from many different sources.

PURPOSE:
to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis.

LIMITATIONS:
sources must be both authentic and valid

SOURCES:
uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings

ADVANTAGES

• The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the results of the study.
• The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
• Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully understand and interpret a research problem.

DISADVANTAGES

• There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
• Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to replicate a previous study.
• The ability to fulfill the aims of your research are directly related to the amount and quality of documentation available to understand the research problem.
• Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
• Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
• The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to ensure access.
• Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of past events and these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical resources.
• Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak with regard to the demands of internal validity.

KEY TERMS TO REMEMBER

SUBJECTS
traditionally used in experimental or quasi-experimental designs where those involved in the research are the pawns in the greater scheme of things, reacting to the intervention

RESPONDENTS
A term favored in sociology for survey designs where those involved respond or answer structured and semi-structured questionnaires; responds tell the researcher exactly what the researcher asks: no more, no less.

INFORMANTS
a term derived from anthropology
the investigator is considered naïve and must be instructed about what is going on in a setting
Key informant – the person selected as the primary link between the anthropologist and the cultural group being studies

PARTICIPANTS
Indicates the most active role of the persons who are being studied
Used in qualitative inquiries

VARIABLE

properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can take on different values or amounts

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Characteristics or condition that is introduced, removed or manipulated to cause a change in the dependent variable that is to be observed or measured

Predictor of Input

An experimental or treatment group is the group that receives the influence of the independent variable, and differs from the control group in the dependent variable

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Characteristics or condition that is observed and measured to find out how the independent variable affects it.  

Outcome or attitude variable

Z-VARIABLE 

Secondary independent variable that is included and measured in the study to determine whether it affects, modify or alter the relation between the independent and dependent variable

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Citations in Research | Practical Research : Qualitative

Why Use Citations?

• Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily
• Provides consistent format within a discipline
• Gives you credibility as a writer
• Protects you from plagiarism
• Avoiding Plagiarism

Academic honesty and integrity!
Proper citation of your sources can help you avoid plagiarism, which is a serious offense. It may result in anything from failure of the assignment to expulsion from school.

Academic Paper Formats

1. MLA (Modern Language Association) - used in literature, arts management, business and the humanities
2. APA (American Psychological Association) - used in social sciences, such as psychology and education and natural sciences
3. AMA (American Medical Association) - used in biological sciences, such as medicine and health
4. Chicago – commonly used by individuals in the humanities
5. Turabian - designed to be used by college students for any subject

Basics of MLA & APA Citations (Book Example)
MLA

• Name(s) of author(s)
• Work title
• Publication city
• Publisher and year
• Publication medium (i.e. print, web)

APA

• Name(s) of author(s)
• Publication year
• Work title
• Publication city
• Publisher

Citation LocationsSources used to write a paper are acknowledged in two different places within the paper:

1. As in-text citations within the text of the paper
2. In the Reference page at the end of the paper .

3 Ways to Cite within a Text

Paraphrase

MLA: As stated by Johnson and Maiden, the research showed that there was…

APA: As stated in Johnson & Maiden (2003), the research showed that…

Embedded Quotation

MLA: As Johnson and Maiden explained, their “study…classes” (34).

APA: As Johnson & Maiden (2003) explained, their “study…classes” (p. 34).

Direct Quotation

MLA: “…in research classes” (Johnson and Maiden 34).

APA: “…in research classes” (Johnson & Maiden, 2003, p. 34).

Please check out https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ for a complete APA Guidelines.

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Problem Identification in Research

WHAT ARE NOT RESEARCH PROBLEMS?

1. Problems that result in a YES or NO answer are not problem for research. Ex. Is homework beneficial to children?
2. Those that deal with ethical questions. It would be very hard to generate an honest response from these problems.   Ex. Is there a relationship between premarital sex and class achievement?
3. Questions that do not require mental struggle.   Ex. How many female students are enrolled in English 101?
4. When a machine can take the place of a researcher to provide answers to questions.  Ex. What is the history of genetics?
5. Metaphysical questions where it is impossible to collect publicly verifiable data and information in order to answer the question.  Ex. Do you believe in spirits?

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION

• Seeks to describe phenomena or characteristics of a particular group of subjects being studied
• Answers the question “what is”
• Asking questions of the research participants
• Testing or measuring their performance

Example:  What are the attitudes of rural parents toward the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum?  (Welshimer & Harris, 1994)

RELATIONSHIP QUESTION

• Investigates the degree to which two or more variables are associated with each other
• Does not establish “cause-and-effect”
• Only identifies extent of relationship between variables

Example: Is there an association between self-esteem and eating behaviors among collegiate female swimmers?  (Fey, 1998)

DIFFERENCE QUESTION

• Seeks to make comparisons between or within groups of interest
• Often associated with experimental research

Example:  Does participation in Special Olympics affect the self-esteem of adults with mental retardation? (Major, 1998)

Guidelines in Formulating Research Questions

1. Questions must include all variables in your study.
2. The set of research questions or sub-problems must be preceded by one question expressing the main problem of the research.
3. Avoid asking questions answerable with “yes” or “no”.
4. Use “how” questions only in a qualitative research.
5. Questions must be SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, time-bound

References:
Practical Research 1 - Esther L. Baraceros

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The Research Process

1. Identify the research question
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a researchable problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypothesis/assumptions
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
8. Designing the data collection plan
9. Selecting or developing data collection instruments
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Interpreting the results

Reference:
http://studylib.net/doc/9563039/chapter-2-the-research-problem

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Approaches and Types of Research

OUR GOALS (objectives based on DepEd's Practical Research Curriculum Guide)

• Explain the types and approaches of research
• Differentiate quantitative from qualitative research (CS_RS11-IIIa-4)
• Provide examples of research in areas of interest (CS_RS11-IIIa-5) 

Approaches of Research

DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH 

- develops hypotheses that are tested during the research process

- tests the validity of assumptions

INDUCTIVE RESEARCH 

starts with research questions and aims and objectives that need to be achieved during the research process

ABDUCTIVE RESEARCH 

deciding what the most likely inference is that can be made from a set of observations

SCIENTIFIC / POSITIVE APPROACH

• Measure information
• Observe and control variables
• Data are expressed through numbers
• Quantitative research

NATURALISTIC APPROACH

•  uses words
•  non-numerical data
•  based on people’s perceptions of the world
•  qualitative research 

TRIANGULATION APPROACH 

• Multiple Methods
• Combination of Research Approaches

TYPES OF RESEARCH

A. Based on Application of Research Method

1. Pure Research - Concepts, principles, and abstract things
2. APPLIED Research - Application to societal problems or issues

B. Based on Purpose of the Research

1. Descriptive Research -  depicts the participants through observation or case study
2. Correlational Research -  non-experimental research where two variables are measured and its statistical relationship is assessed
3. Exploratory Research -   gather preliminary information that will help define problems and suggest hypotheses
4. Action Research - an ongoing practice of an organization or institution to bring solutions and improvement

C. Based on Types of Data Needed

QUANTITATIVE  vs QUALITATIVE

1. Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

          Kinds of Quantitative Research

                1. Experimental 

                2. Quasi – experimental

                3. Correlational 

     2. Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular populations.

McMillan and Schumacher (2003) defined qualitative research as, “primarily an inductive process of organizing data into categories and identifying patterns (relationships) among categories.” This definition implies that data and meaning emerge “organically” from the research context. 

The general characteristics of qualitative research...

  Data sources are real-world situations

  Data are descriptive

  Data analysis is inductive

  Describes the meaning of research findings from the perspective of the research participants

What are the Strengths of qualitative? 

1. Use of open-ended questions and probing 
2. Allow the researcher the flexibility to probe initial participant responses
3. Exploratory Advantage - researcher can get an in-depth respons to make the study substantial
4. Open-ended questions have the ability to evoke responses that are:

• meaningful and culturally salient to the participant
• unanticipated by the researcher
• rich and explanatory in nature

Weakness/Issues in qualitative research

1. Gaining entry
2. Contacting participants
3. Selecting participants
4. Enhancing validity and reducing bias in qualitative studies
5. Leaving the field

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Case Study

2. Phenomenology

3. Ethnography

4. Grounded Theory

5. Biographical Study

6. Historical Analysis
7. Content and Discourse Analysis

References:
Practical Research 1 - Esther L. Baraceros

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Types of Qualitative Research

1. Case Study

• exploration of a “bounded system”
• Find answers to why such things occur to the subject
• detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context

Sample titles:

Cultural influences on the social network marketing effectiveness : A case Study in Thailand

Gender Differences Within Academia : A case study on the probability of promotion

Case Study on male prostitution in Cebu City

2. Phenomenology

• the essences of structures of the experience (Moustakas, 1994)
• Describes the meaning of the lived experience (sensory experience)
• Make people understand their experiences

Sample titles:

AN INDEPTH EXPLORATION INTO THE SEXUAL EXPERIENCES OF PEOPLE WITH A MILD OR MODERATE INTELLECTUAL DISABILTY.

NEAR DEATH EXPERIENCES AMONG CRTITICAL PATIENTS : A PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

3. Ethnography

• A description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system.  The researcher examines the group’s observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life.
• Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation. 

Sample title:

Child rearing practices of Manobo Tribe: A close encounter

4. Grounded Theory

The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation.  If little is known about a topic, grounded theory is especially useful

5. Biographical Study

The study of an individual and her or his experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material

Sample Titles:

Student Life of Jose Rizal: A Documentary

Who is Lapu-Lapu?: A closer look to a brave hero

6. Historical Analysis

• A process of critical inquiry into past events in order to produce an accurate description and interpretation of those events (Wiersma, 1986)
• Examination of primary documents to make one understand the connection of past events to present time. The results of the content analysis will help you specify phenomenological changes of unchanged aspects of society through years.

Sample Titles:

Digging Through Dust: Historiography for the Organizational Sciences

The Old Historiography in New China:the Modern Positivism in the Historiography of RPC (1949-1965)

7. Content and Discourse Analysis

• A method that requires analysis or examination of the substance or content of the mode of communication such as letters, books, journals, photos, video recordings, sms, online messages, emails, audio-visual materials, etc.
• It is a study of language structures used in the medium of communication to discover the effects of sociological, cultural, institutional, and ideological factors on the content

References:

Practical Research 1 - Esther L. Baraceros

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Principles in Organizing Information from a Text

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION

1. Chronological Order  time order, items, events, or even ideas are arranged in the order in which they occur
2. Spatial Order  items are arranged according to physical position or relationships
3. Climactic Order – order of importance 

• general-to-specific 
• most-familiar-to-least-familiar
• simplest-to-most-complex 
• order of frequency
• order of familiarity

      4. Topical Order  arises from the nature of the topic itself

FIVE BASIC STEPS IN ORGANIZING INFORMATION

FIVE HAT RACKS
Richard Saul Wurman (1989) posits that there are five fundamental ways to organize information

“Information may be infinite, however…The organization of information is finite as it can only be organized by LATCH: Location, Alphabet, Time, Category, or Hierarchy.” - Richard Saul Wurman, 1996

LATCH 
LOCATION
Compare information coming from various sources
1. Atlas
2. Travel Guide
3. Parts of the Body
4. Parts of a System

ALPHABET
Used for very large bodies of information
1. dictionary
2. list of states on a website
3. list of student names in a class

TIME
Used for events that occur over a fixed duration
1. a joke
2. a scenario
3. a narrative

CATEGORY
- Reinforced by color & placement.
- Grouped by similar importance
1. Organization of goods
2. Types of activities
3. Breeds of animals

HIERARCHY
Assign value or weight to the information; usually on a scale
1. largest to smallest
2. cheapest to most expensive

Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information

1. Brainstorming
2. Sentence Outline
3. Topic Outline
4. Graphic Organizers

TYPES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

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Written Text as Connected Discourse

DISCOURSE

Etymology: DISCURSUS (Latin)

•  Argument
•  Conversation 

Definition: 

• Text with distinct features and purpose
• Formal and often lengthy discussion of a topic where concepts and insights are arranged in an organized and logical manner

Examples:

• Journal /Diary
• News Articles
• Anecdotes
• Procedures
• Critiques
• Opinion Piece
• Position Paper
• PR Articles
• Research Articles
• Blog posts

How language is used to:

• Convey meanings
• Propel action
• Provoke a specific response 

PURPOSE OF DISCOURSE

• TO INFORM
• TO PERSUADE 
• TO ENTERTAIN

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DISCOURSE

• CULTURE
• SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
• PERSONAL EXPERIENCES

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9MDya8jLd8

Connected Discourse in Speech

Connected speech is spoken language that's used in a continuous sequence, as in normal conversations. Also called connected discourse. There is often a significant difference between the way words are pronounced in isolation and the way they are pronounced in the context of connected speech. (https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-connected-speech-1689790)

Connected Discourse as a Written Text

These refer to text with distinct features and purpose in which ideas are coherently arranged. 

Sample Texts:

Journal Entry: The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank

Sunday, 21st  of June  year 1942

I get along pretty well with all my teachers. There are nine of them, seven men and two women. Mr. Keesing, the old fogey who teaches math, was mad at me for the longest time because I talked so much. After several warnings, he assigned me extra homework. An essay on the subject “A Chatterbox.” A chatterbox, what can you write about that? I’d worry about that later, I decided. I jotted down the assignment in my notebook, tucked it in my bag and tried to keep quiet. 

Anecdote: The Funny Bone by Henry Martyn Kieffer

THE LOGIC OF GRAMMAR

While instructing his pupils in grammar, a country school-teacher gave out this sentence to be parsed: “Mary milks the cow.” Each word had been parsed except the last, which fell to Bob, a sixteen-year-old boy, near the foot of the class, who began thus:

“Cow is a noun, feminine gender, singular number, third person, and stands for Mary.”

“Stands for Mary!” said the astonished teacher. “And, pray, Robert, how do you make that out?”

“Because,” answered the hopeful pupil, “if the cow didn’t stand for Mary, how could Mary milk the cow?”

Anecdote: 

The child and his mother:

A curious child asked his mother: “Mommy, why are some of your hairs turning grey?”

The mother tried to use this occasion to teach her child: “It is because of you, dear. Every bad action of yours will turn one of my hairs grey!”

The child replied innocently: “Now I know why grandmother has only grey hairs on her head.”

(Source: http://academictips.org/blogs/funny-short-stories/comment-page-2/)

News Article: 

Tambunting said the breakdown of communication was worsened by the fact that the CCTV surveillance rooms were not manned at the time of the attack.

The police have said of the three surveillance rooms, the surveillance rooms in Resorts World Manila and Maxim’s were not manned because the people were evacuated from there due to the buildup of smoke.

(Source: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/905571/resorts-world-attack-worsened-by-breakdown-of-communication-solon

Opinion Article:

I doubt that members of Congress really ruminated on both sides of the debate on this issue. I think congressmen will vote to pass this bill not because they genuinely believe death penalty will deter crime, but it will be their sycophantic gesture to please President Rodrigo Duterte, who they think will grant them political favors if they do what he wants. There will also be others who will vote for this bill because of pressure from the party leadership.

(Source: www.philstar.com:8080/opinion/2017/02/14/.../public-opinion-and-death-penalty)

Procedure: 

Here's a simple step-by-step guide for creating a blog on Bluehost (or any other web host)

Sign up with a web hosting (I recommend Bluehost).

Choose the hosting plan (you can pick the cheapest one).

Pick a domain name for your blog.

Complete hosting registration.

Install WordPress.

Log in and write a blog post.

(Source: https://websitesetup.org/create-blog/)

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Principles in Speech Writing - Presentation Ideas

Below are the outputs of my students' group presentation on the Principles in Speech Writing. The principles formulated were based on their readings from varied references.

STEC - SHS - GRADE 11 - ABM MAXWELL - SY 2016 - 2017

STEC - SHS - GRADE 11 - STEM MENDEL - SY 2016 - 2017

STEC - SHS - GRADE 11 - STEM MENDELEEV - SY 2016 - 2017

10 PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH WRITING (MUSIC SHARE)


#1 M-aintain personal awareness
#2 U- se the 5 supporting elements

• Illustration
• Definition
• Analogies
• Statistics
• Language

#3 S-tate your intention clearly
#4 I-mpart confidence
#5 C-hoose appropriate topic
#6 S-ignal end
#7 H-ave a good beginning
#8 A-assume a role
#9 R-einforce central idea
#10 E-stablish credibility and good will

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