Data Gathering Procedures for Qualitative Research Design

I. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

What is Participant Observation?

• involves the researcher "getting to know" the people they're studying by entering their world and participating in that world
• You put yourself "in the shoes" of the people you're studying in an attempt to experience events in the way they experience them
• Usually involves observation over an extended period of time 

Observer:

• gains a deeper understanding of the group being observed 
• maintains objectivity to  understand, analyze and explain the social world under study

The researcher engaged in participant observation tries to learn what life is like for an “insider” while remaining, inevitably, an “outsider.”

Types of Participant Observation

1. Covert Participant Observation - researchers do not inform members of the group the reason for their presence; keeping their true intentions secret; this automatically raises ethical concerns

Advantages of Covert Participant Observation

1. The behavior of those being observed remains unaltered – i.e. avoids the ‘observer effect’
2. The observer may be allowed access to ‘privileged’ inside information and decision making of the group
3. Observer gains access to groups who would otherwise not allow observation 

Disadvantages of Covert Observation

1. having to use deceit
2. researcher may form connections / friendships with members of  the group
3. researcher ‘goes native’ – i.e. sympathises with / identifies with the group and loses objectivity
4. becoming involved in criminal or dangerous activities when a ‘deviant’ group is being studied 
5. having to act out forms of behavior which observer finds personally unethical or distasteful

2. Overt Participant Observation - the researchers are open about the reason for their presence in the field of study since the researchers are given permission by the group to conduct their research

Advantages of Overt Observation

1. the avoidance of problems of ethics in that the group are aware of the researcher's role 
2. the group is being observed in its 'natural setting' 
3. data may also be openly recorded
4.  problems of 'going native' are avoided 

Disadvantages of  Overt Observation

1. Observer effect, where the behaviour of those under study may alter due to the presence of the researcher

Strengths of Participant Observation

1. Allows for insights into contexts, relationships, behavior
2. Provides information previously unknown to researchers that is crucial for project design , data collection, and interpretation of data

How do I document what I learn  during participant observation?

Documentation of participant observation data consists of :

1. FIELD NOTES

• recording of all accounts and observations in a field notebook
• Informal conversation and interaction should be recorded in the field notes, in as much detail as possible
• Handwritten notes, later converted into computer files, are often the only way to document certain participant observation activities, such as informal or spontaneous interviews, observation, and generally moving about in the field. 
• Notes from participant observation – like those from interviews and focus groups – are called “field notes,” and they are written directly into field notebooks. 

Tips in taking field notes:

1. Begin each notebook entry with the date, time, place, and type of data collection event.
2. Take notes strategically.
3. Use shorthand (method of rapid writing by means of abbreviations and symbols, used especially for taking dictation)
4. Cover a range of observations. 

2. AUDIO AND VIDEO RECORDING

How should I behave during participant observation?

• The most important behavioral principle in participant observation is to be discreet. 
• Try not to stand out or to affect the natural flow of activity. 
• One way to do this is to behave in a way similar to the people around you, such as praying in a religious setting or drinking in a bar. 

II. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

What is an in-depth interview?

• An in-depth interview is an open-ended, discovery-oriented method that is well suited for describing both program processes and outcomes from the perspective of the target audience or key stakeholder. 
• usually conducted face-to-face and involve one interviewer and one participant. 
• the goal of the interview is to deeply explore the respondent's point of view, feelings and perspectives. 
• involves not only asking questions, but the systematic recording and documenting of responses coupled with intense probing for deeper meaning and understanding of the responses. 

Key Features of In-depth Interviews

1. Open-ended Questions:
Questions should be worded so that respondents cannot simply answer yes or no, but must expound on the topic.

2. Semi-structured Format:
Pre-planned questions are asked during the interview but you must also allow questions to flow naturally, based on information provided by the respondent. You should not insist upon asking specific questions in a specific order.

3.Seek understanding and interpretation:
You should try to interpret what you are hearing, as well as seek clarity and a deeper understanding from the respondent throughout the interview. (Interpret the answer and clarify)

4. Conversational:
You should be conversational, but your role is primarily that of a listener. There should be smooth transitions from one topic to the next.

5.Record responses:
The responses are recorded, typically with audiotape and written notes (i.e., field notes)
You observe and record non-verbal behaviors on the field notes as they occur.

6. Record reflections:
You record your views and feelings immediately after the interview as well

The Researcher’s Role

• engage with participants by posing questions in a neutral manner
• listen attentively to participants’ responses (Active Listening)
• ask follow-up questions and probe based on those responses 
• do not lead participants according to any preconceived notions
• never encourage participants to provide particular answers by expressing approval or disapproval of what they say
• Do not rush the respondent and allow him/her to speak freely while guiding the conversation to cover important issues.

STAGES OF IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

1. Thematizing
clarify the purpose of the interviews and determine what you want to find out. Make an Outline of the questions and sub questions.

2. Designing
prepare the interview guide (a list of questions and probing follow-ups that guide you through the interview)

Types of Questions

1. Probe questions
2. Follow-up questions
3. Exit questions

Examples: 
Probe Questions:

• How familiar are you with our SHS tutorial program?
• How often do you attend our programs?
• What is your favorite program?

Follow-Up Questions:

• What are your favorite and least favorite aspects of Tutorial Program A?
• What are your favorite and least favorite aspects of Tutorial Program B?
• What influences whether you attend a program?
• If we were to close a program, which one should we close and why?

Exit Question:

• Is there anything else you’d like to say about our programs?

CAVEAT! 
As you prepare the guide, you should anticipate and organize the issues you plan to explore. However, if the discussion warrants it, you must be willing to transition or change directions during the interview. 

3. Interviewing
3 PARTS

1. Introduction – establish rapport, address confidentiality issue, ask permission to take notes and record
2. Setting the mood – ask ease questions such as, ‘How are you today? How's schooling? How’s your family?’
3. Interview proper - Get down to the prepared questions and probing

PROBING: Direct questions

• “What do you mean when you say . . .?”
• “Why do you think . . .?”
• “How did this happen?”
• “How did you feel about . . .?”
• “What happened then?”
• “Can you tell me more?”
• “Can you please elaborate?”
• “I’m not sure I understand X. . . . Would you explain that to me?”
• “How did you handle X?”
• “How did X affect you?”
• “Can you give me an example of X?”

PROBING: Indirect probes

• Neutral verbal expressions such as “uh huh,” “interesting,” and “I see”
• Verbal expressions of empathy, such as,“I can see why you say that was difficult for you”
• Mirroring technique, or repeating what the participant  said, such as, “So you were 19 when you had your first child . . .”
• Culturally appropriate body language  or gestures, such as nodding in acknowledgment 

4. Transcribing
involves creating a written text of the interviews.

Steps :

1. Bring together all of your information-gathering approaches into one written form
2. Write out each question and response (verbatim) from the interview using recorded audiotape and notes including side notes (observations, feelings and reflections) *side notes are differentiated from the respondent's notes, typically by highlighted text
3. Study and review the transcription
4. Denote the important information related to the study

5. Analyzing / Clarifying

• involves determining the meaning in the information gathered in relation to the purpose of the study. 
• If more questions are raised that need clarity in order to serve the purpose of the study, then another in-depth interview is warranted to examine the issue more thoroughly. 

6. Verifying

• involves checking the credibility and validity of the information gathered. 
• Triangulation is used as a means of checks and balances.
• use multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of information
• have a colleague read the transcripts to compare interpretation of meaning 

7. Reporting

• share what you have learned from the in-depth interviews with other internal and external stakeholders. 
• Some reporting could be in the form of a formal written report such as the Report of Accomplishment or published Needs Assessment findings. 

III. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

What is a Focus Group Discussion?

• is a qualitative research method in the social sciences, with a particular emphasis and application in the developmental program evaluation sphere.
• predetermined semi-structured interview led by a skilled moderator

Characteristics of Focus Groups

• Participants
• Have something in common
• 2-8 people per group
• Carefully consider demographics of participants 
• Repeat each demographic group 3-4 times for comparison
• First name only on name tags for each person
• Elements that Affect 
• Intercultural Interaction 
• Language
• Nonverbal behavior
• Communication style
• Values
• Tips for Communicating Across Languages
• Speak slowly and finish your words and sentences
• Learn basics of your foreign native language and culture (verbal and non-verbal)
• Avoid using idioms and or slangs
• Avoid statements such as “You aren’t making yourself clear”
• Summarize your ideas periodically
• Avoid interrupting your counterpart if she or he is speaking
• Try to have materials translated into your counterpart’s language
• Use qualified interpreters to avoid costly misunderstandings
• Environment
• Comfortable atmosphere
• Circle seating
• Tape recording Considerations
• It is optional
• Need for Completely Accurate Transcript
• Availability of Resources
• Ability To Get Consent
• Affect on Participation
• Question Development
• Everyone is involved in development
• Use open-ended questions
• Avoid dichotomous (yes/no) questions
• Use “think back” questions
• Question Development
• Avoid jargon
• Use questions that get participants involved
• Make a list
• Fill in the blank
• Choices
• Drawing
• Probes
• Ask question or solicits information
• Focus your question
• Determine common probes ahead of time
• May add impromptu probes to pursue a relevant thread
• Question Sequence
• Questions are typically sequenced like a funnel
• Opening question
• Introductory questions
• Transition questions
• Key questions
• Ending Question
• Reflects the entire discussion
• “Of all the things we discussed, what is the most important to you?”

• Role /Characteristics of the Moderator
• mentally prepared
• Uses purposeful small talk
• Provides a smooth introduction of 3-5 minutes
• Uses pauses and probes
• Controls his/her reactions
• Uses subtle group control
• Uses appropriate conclusion
• Helps the Assistant Moderator get notes
• Above all else, the moderator should make eye contact and be respectful. These build trust and the belief that input from the group is valued.
• Assistant Moderators may:
• Welcome participants
• Operate recording equipment (if used)
• Take notes
• Observe participants
• Debrief with moderator after session
• Give feedback or assists with data analysis and reporting
• Data Analysis
• Immediately after the group
• Draw a diagram of the seating arrangement and note key characteristics of participants (e.g. hair color, gender,clothing)
• Moderator and assistant moderator should debrief the session noting themes, hunches and ideas
• Compare and contrast this group with others that have already been conducted
• If used, have tape recording transcribed
• Review notes and fill in any gaps
• Prepare a brief report of this group in a question-by-question format
• Ask for feedback from assistant moderator
• Debriefing 
• a meeting that is held after each focus group to discuss all aspects of the session
• Immediately after the session, ask the note-taker to read the notes aloud. 
• The moderator and other project participants and observers should discuss the following:
• What did we learn?
• What in our planning was confirmed?
• What did we find surprising?
• What seems to be our next step?

Source: https://blog.socialcops.com/academy/resources/4-data-collection-techniques-ones-right/