Types of Academic Texts - Study Notes

Academic Writing Consolidated Study Notes

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Principles in Organizing Information from a Text

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION

1. Chronological Order  time order, items, events, or even ideas are arranged in the order in which they occur
2. Spatial Order  items are arranged according to physical position or relationships
3. Climactic Order – order of importance 

• general-to-specific 
• most-familiar-to-least-familiar
• simplest-to-most-complex 
• order of frequency
• order of familiarity

      4. Topical Order  arises from the nature of the topic itself

FIVE BASIC STEPS IN ORGANIZING INFORMATION

FIVE HAT RACKS
Richard Saul Wurman (1989) posits that there are five fundamental ways to organize information

“Information may be infinite, however…The organization of information is finite as it can only be organized by LATCH: Location, Alphabet, Time, Category, or Hierarchy.” - Richard Saul Wurman, 1996

LATCH 
LOCATION
Compare information coming from various sources
1. Atlas
2. Travel Guide
3. Parts of the Body
4. Parts of a System

ALPHABET
Used for very large bodies of information
1. dictionary
2. list of states on a website
3. list of student names in a class

TIME
Used for events that occur over a fixed duration
1. a joke
2. a scenario
3. a narrative

CATEGORY
- Reinforced by color & placement.
- Grouped by similar importance
1. Organization of goods
2. Types of activities
3. Breeds of animals

HIERARCHY
Assign value or weight to the information; usually on a scale
1. largest to smallest
2. cheapest to most expensive

Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information

1. Brainstorming
2. Sentence Outline
3. Topic Outline
4. Graphic Organizers

TYPES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

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Written Text as Connected Discourse

DISCOURSE

Etymology: DISCURSUS (Latin)

•  Argument
•  Conversation 

Definition: 

• Text with distinct features and purpose
• Formal and often lengthy discussion of a topic where concepts and insights are arranged in an organized and logical manner

Examples:

• Journal /Diary
• News Articles
• Anecdotes
• Procedures
• Critiques
• Opinion Piece
• Position Paper
• PR Articles
• Research Articles
• Blog posts

How language is used to:

• Convey meanings
• Propel action
• Provoke a specific response 

PURPOSE OF DISCOURSE

• TO INFORM
• TO PERSUADE 
• TO ENTERTAIN

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DISCOURSE

• CULTURE
• SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
• PERSONAL EXPERIENCES

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9MDya8jLd8

Connected Discourse in Speech

Connected speech is spoken language that's used in a continuous sequence, as in normal conversations. Also called connected discourse. There is often a significant difference between the way words are pronounced in isolation and the way they are pronounced in the context of connected speech. (https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-connected-speech-1689790)

Connected Discourse as a Written Text

These refer to text with distinct features and purpose in which ideas are coherently arranged. 

Sample Texts:

Journal Entry: The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank

Sunday, 21st  of June  year 1942

I get along pretty well with all my teachers. There are nine of them, seven men and two women. Mr. Keesing, the old fogey who teaches math, was mad at me for the longest time because I talked so much. After several warnings, he assigned me extra homework. An essay on the subject “A Chatterbox.” A chatterbox, what can you write about that? I’d worry about that later, I decided. I jotted down the assignment in my notebook, tucked it in my bag and tried to keep quiet. 

Anecdote: The Funny Bone by Henry Martyn Kieffer

THE LOGIC OF GRAMMAR

While instructing his pupils in grammar, a country school-teacher gave out this sentence to be parsed: “Mary milks the cow.” Each word had been parsed except the last, which fell to Bob, a sixteen-year-old boy, near the foot of the class, who began thus:

“Cow is a noun, feminine gender, singular number, third person, and stands for Mary.”

“Stands for Mary!” said the astonished teacher. “And, pray, Robert, how do you make that out?”

“Because,” answered the hopeful pupil, “if the cow didn’t stand for Mary, how could Mary milk the cow?”

Anecdote: 

The child and his mother:

A curious child asked his mother: “Mommy, why are some of your hairs turning grey?”

The mother tried to use this occasion to teach her child: “It is because of you, dear. Every bad action of yours will turn one of my hairs grey!”

The child replied innocently: “Now I know why grandmother has only grey hairs on her head.”

(Source: http://academictips.org/blogs/funny-short-stories/comment-page-2/)

News Article: 

Tambunting said the breakdown of communication was worsened by the fact that the CCTV surveillance rooms were not manned at the time of the attack.

The police have said of the three surveillance rooms, the surveillance rooms in Resorts World Manila and Maxim’s were not manned because the people were evacuated from there due to the buildup of smoke.

(Source: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/905571/resorts-world-attack-worsened-by-breakdown-of-communication-solon

Opinion Article:

I doubt that members of Congress really ruminated on both sides of the debate on this issue. I think congressmen will vote to pass this bill not because they genuinely believe death penalty will deter crime, but it will be their sycophantic gesture to please President Rodrigo Duterte, who they think will grant them political favors if they do what he wants. There will also be others who will vote for this bill because of pressure from the party leadership.

(Source: www.philstar.com:8080/opinion/2017/02/14/.../public-opinion-and-death-penalty)

Procedure: 

Here's a simple step-by-step guide for creating a blog on Bluehost (or any other web host)

Sign up with a web hosting (I recommend Bluehost).

Choose the hosting plan (you can pick the cheapest one).

Pick a domain name for your blog.

Complete hosting registration.

Install WordPress.

Log in and write a blog post.

(Source: https://websitesetup.org/create-blog/)

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Reading and Writing Skills Curriculum Guide for Senior High School

Reading and Writing Skills - Curriculum Guide

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Professional Correspondence

Professional correspondence- written or digital communication exchanged by two or more parties; it can be any written interaction with a potential employer or business partner

Forms:

• Letters 
• voicemail
• notes
• Emails
• text messages
• postcards

Business letter
- the exchange of information in a written format for the process of business activities

Parts of a Business letter

• Letterhead 
• Date 
• Inside Address 
• Attention Line 
• Salutation 
• Body 
• Complimentary Close 
• Signature Block 
• Identification Initials 
• Enclosure Notation 
• Copy Notation 

Guidelines in Writing a Business letter

1. Use correct format, punctuation, spelling, and grammar. 
2. Present ideas clearly using appropriate language. 
3. guidelines - Business letter 
4. Use an active voice. Apply direct but tactful tone. 
5. Arrange ideas logically. 
6. Leave 3-5 lines for a signature before typing your name. 
7. Never use plain numerals for dates. 

Memorandum

• “memorare” (latin) – to remember 
• Informs and persuades people within an organization 
• Follows an inverted pyramid structure 

Parts of a memo

• Letterhead 
• Date line 
• To line 
• Attention Line 
• From line 
• Subject line 
• Body 
• Signature Block 
• Enclosure Notation 
• Copy Notification 

Guidelines in Writing a Memo

1. Use correct format and standard language. 
2. Use bullet or numbered list to enumerate information. 
3. Use positive tone, concise wording, and active verbs. 
4. Sign beside your typed name. 
5. Flush left “to, from, date, and subject lines” 
6. Conclude memo simply with a “thank you” or a directive action. 

Kinds of memo

• Instruction memo  - provides information needed by the readers to perform directions 
• Announcement memo - provides information about an event, person, or thing 
• Request memo - asks to provide certain information 
• Transmittal memo - serves as cover note for more formal or lengthy document 
• Authorization memo - gives permission 

Electronic mails
- messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or more recipients via a network

Guidelines in Writing Electronic Mails

1. Connect subject line to your reader’s needs and interests. 
2. Do not change the subject line when you reply to an e-mail. 
3. Make the subject line short and simple but specific. 
4. The ‘TO’ line must only contain the names of the primary readers. Secondary readers must be placed in the ‘cc’ line. 
5. Be accurate in typing the e-mail addresses of the recipients. 
6. Keep the message brief and straightforward. 

Email Etiquette 101

1. Punctuation: Use exclamation points when necessary, not when you’re angry.
2. Emoticons : The only one typically accepted in business email etiquette is the standard smiley face. :) 
3. Grammar: Don't use acronyms when communicating with external contacts and, depending on whom, some internal contacts. 
4. BCC: Blind Carbon Copy must be used with discernment
5. Subject Lines: Use a brief subject line that’s descriptive of the core contents of your message.
6. Tone: Use friendly language with simple punctuation.
7. Email Salutation: Depending on who we’re communicating with, this greeting can be formal or informal. 
8. Email Ending: The formality or informality of your email ending should match the tone of the greeting. If you use a formal introduction, use a formal ending. 
9. Email Closing: Even when the rest of our email is formal, we usually never need a formal email closing. Simply signing off with “-Name” suffices. 
10. Email Signature : It should not include every possible way to contact you. Do not use an image of any kind or any heavy marketing information
11. Fonts & Formatting: Keep the basic formatting .
12. Attachments: No more than two attachments, and provide a logical name. 
13. Hyperlinks: Rather than pasting full URLs into the email body, a better approach is to either shorten the URL or hyperlink a set of words. 

          Example:
         Check this out:  http://getsidekick.com/blog/vacation-emails-inbox-zero
         change to: 
         Check out this article.  (Note: article here is a hyperlink)

"Every e-mail you send adds to, or detracts from your reputation. If your e-mail is scattered, disorganized, and filled with mistakes, the recipient will be inclined to think of you as a scattered, careless, and disorganized businessperson. Other people's opinions matter and in the professional world, their perception of you will be critical to your success."

--Peter Post, director of the Burlington

REMEMBER!

Your e-mail is a reflection of you. 

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Properties of a Well-written Text

1. Ideas - developed when there is a clear statement of purpose, position, facts, examples, specific details, definitions, explanation, justifications, or opposing viewpoints. 2. Organization – achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged When ideas are organized well, a text can achieve the following: Unity – achieved when a composition contains one focused idea Coherence – occurs when ideas are connected at the conceptual level Cohesion – connection of ideas at sentence level 3. Language Use and Word Choice – appropriateness of word / vocabulary usage *Use clear and concise sentences.  Use precise vocabulary *Avoid redundancies, wordiness, clichés, and high falutin language. *Avoid excessive use of there and it structures. *Be consistent with pronouns *Avoid sexist language. When words and language are used appropriately, Sentence Fluency is achieved.  Sentence Fluency - achieved through appropriate sentence structure, correct subject-verb agreement and varying sentence starters 4. Voice - distinct personality, style, or point of view of a piece of writing or any other creative work 5. Mechanics – set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize *Avoid contractions and exclamation points (unless part of a direct quotation) *Mention the full name before the abbreviation. *Numbers from 0-10 must be spelled out. References:  http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/understanding-voice-and-tone-in-writing https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oAp5w-ZKeXk

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Textual Evidence

Textual evidence is evidence from a text (fiction or nonfiction) that you can use to illustrate your ideas and support your arguments.

Types of Evidences

1. Statistical Evidence

Statistical evidence is the kind of data people tend to look for first when trying to prove a point.  That’s not surprising when you consider how prevalent it is in today’s society.   Remember those McDonald’s signs that said “Over 1 billion served”? How about those Trident chewing gum commercials that say “4 out of 5 dentists recommend chewing sugarless gum”? Every time you use numbers to support a main point, you’re relying on statistical evidence to carry your argument. 

2. Testimonial Evidence

Testimonial evidence is another type of evidence that is commonly turned to by people trying to prove a point.  Commercials that use spokespersons to testify about the quality of a company’s product, lawyers who rely on eye-witness accounts  to win a case, and students who quote an authority in their essays are all using testimonial evidence. 

3. Anecdotal Evidence

Often dismissed as untrustworthy and meaningless, anecdotal evidence is one of the more underutilized types of evidence.  Anecdotal evidence is evidence that is based on a person’s observations of the world.   It can actually be very useful for disproving generalizations because all you need is one example that contradicts a claim.  

Be careful when using this type of evidence to try and support your claims.  One example of a non-native English speaker who has perfect grammar does NOT prove that ALL non-native English speakers have perfect grammar.  All the anecdote can do is disprove the claim that all immigrants who are non-native English speakers have terrible grammar.  

You CAN use this type of evidence to support claims, though, if you use it in conjunction with other types of evidence.  Personal observations can serve as wonderful examples to introduce a topic and build it up – just make sure you include statistical evidence so the reader of your paper doesn’t question whether your examples are just isolated incidents. 

4. Analogical Evidence

The last type of evidence is called analogical evidence.  It is also underutilized, but this time for a reason.  Analogies are mainly useful when dealing with a topic that is under-researched.  If you are on the cutting edge of an issue, you’re the person breaking new ground.  When you don’t have statistics to refer to or other authorities on the matter to quote, you have to get your evidence from somewhere.  Analogical evidence steps in to save the day. 

Take the following example: You work for a company that is considering turning some land into a theme park. On that land there happens to be a river that your bosses think would make a great white-water rafting ride.  They’ve called on you to assess whether or not that ride would be a good idea.  

Since the land in question is as yet undeveloped, you have no casualty reports or statistics to refer to.  In this case, you can look to other rivers with the same general shape to them, altitude, etc.  and see if any white-water rafting casualties have occurred on those rivers.  Although the rivers are different, the similarities between them should be strong enough to give credibility to your research.  Realtors use the same type of analogical evidence when determining the value of a home. 

Methods in Citing Textual Evidences

1. Referencing
Referencing is mentioning a particular event or action in the text. It’s useful when you want to point to point something out to support a point you’re trying to make but don’t feel a summary, paraphrase or direct quote is necessary.

2. Summarizing
Summarizing is putting someone else’s words into your own words. It’s useful when you want to point to a larger section of text but do not need the details of the original text. Summarizing literary fiction usually occurs in the introduction of a literary analysis essay.  It is rarely used in the body of a literary analysis essay other than to provide some context when it is needed. Summaries should be written in your own words, include a page number, and be followed by a statement explaining its importance and connection to the topic sentence. 

3.  Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is also putting someone else’s words into your own words. It is useful when you need more detail than a summary but less than a direct quote. A paraphrase focuses concisely on a single main idea. Paraphrasing should be written in your own words, include a page number, and be followed by a statement explaining its importance and connection to the topic sentence. 

4.  Quoting
Quotations illuminate your ideas and support your argument using the exact words from the original text. It’s useful when you want to capture the particular language an author uses.  It is the most convincing evidence of the four types as they add credibility to the point you are trying to make.. As with all the textual evidence, make sure you explain how the quote is connected to your point — let the reader know the significance of the quotations you use. 

There are three levels of direct quoting:

• Specific details—quoting words or phrases
• Brief quotes—quoting 1-3 sentences
• Lengthy quotes—quoting 4 or more sentences at one time (you will unlikely use this type of quoting in this course)

Specific Detail
Specific details use words or phrases from the text to support your argument. Details should be short—a word or phrase–and they should be incorporated into your own sentences.

Jack was “bent double” with his “nose only a few inches from the humid earth” tracking the trail of the pig “dog-like…on all fours” (Golding 48)

Brief quotations
Brief quotations are fewer than three lines and should be carefully introduced and integrated into your writing. Put quotation marks around all briefly quoted material, as in this example:

On the wall of his room is a “large tinted photograph of his dead wife, who, if Masses willed and paid for out of her own estate could do it, was in Heaven” (99).

Lengthy quotations
Lengthy quotations (also called block quotes) are used when you want to quote more than three lines of text.  Think carefully before using this type of quotation and make sure the entire section you want to quote directly supports your argument.  Block quotes should be single-spaced and indented four spaces from the left margin, and should not use quote marks.

Steinbeck writes:

When the servant come in bearing the message that Juana and Kino have arrived, the doctor sat up in his high bed.  He had on his dressing gown of red watered silk that had come from Paris, a little tight over the chest now if it was buttoned.  On his lap was a silver tray with a silver chocolate pot and a tiny cup of eggshell china, so delicate that it looked silly when he lifted  it with his big hands (701).

Sources:

http://www.istianjinelearning.org/joeschaaf/seec/5-how-to-use-direct-quotations/

http://www.writingsimplified.com/2009/10/4-types-of-evidence.html

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Critical Reading as a Way of Thinking and Reasoning

Goals of Critical Reading 

Critical reading is not simply close and careful reading. To read critically, one must actively recognize and analyze evidence upon the page. Critical reading is an analytic activity. It involves bringing outside knowledge and values to bear to evaluate the presentation and decide what to ultimately accept as true.

Textbooks on critical reading commonly ask students to accomplish certain goals: 

• to recognize an author’s purpose - inferring a basis for choices of content and language 
• to understand tone and persuasive elements - classifying the nature of language choices 
• to recognize bias - classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content and language 

Style is the particular way in which a writer uses language. Style reflects an author’s personality. 

Factors that contribute to an author’s style:

• level of formality 
• use of figurative language 
• diction or word choice 
• sentence patterns 
• methods of organization 

Tone is the author’s attitude toward both the subject and readers or listeners. In conversations, you can hear a speaker’s tone in the way words and phrases are spoken. When reading, you can “hear” tone in an author’s choice of words and details. 

• pompous 
• playful 
• serious 
• personal 
• sarcastic 
• friendly 

Perspective is the viewpoint or opinion an author expresses about the subject, either directly or indirectly. Bias occurs when a writer makes a one-sided presentation 

• by ignoring relevant facts 
• by using emotional language 
• by unfairly swaying readers’ or listeners’ feelings 

Purpose is the author’s reason for writing. 

• to inform 
• to persuade 
• to honor 
• to entertain 
• to explain 
• to warn 

These three steps or modes of analysis: 

ANALYSIS 

1. Restatement - What a text says : talks about the same topic as the original text 

2. Description - What a text does : discusses aspects of the discussion itself 

INFERENCE

3. Interpretation - What a text means : analyzes the text and asserts a meaning for the text as a whole 

TYPES OF CLAIMS

1. Claim of Fact 

• an argument about a quantifiable topic. This is claim is not a fact; it only asserts a stand regarding a debatable topic.
• existence of something/definition or classification/facts -- inferences about past present or future

Proof requires: 

• sufficient and appropriate grounds 
• reliable authority 
• recent data 
• accurate, typical data 
• clearly defined terms -no loaded language 
• a clear distinction between fact and inference 

2. Claim of Value 

• argues whether something is good or bad
• based on judgment and evaluation on a philosophical, aesthetic, or moral standpoint 
• resolve conflict between values/ quasi policy (rightness of it; relative merit) 
• it is not merely a subjective judgment; it is assessed based on accurate information

Proof requires: 

• Establishing standards of evaluation (i.e. a warrant that defines what constitutes instances of the relevant value) 
• note the priority of the value in this instance 
• Establish the advantage (practical or moral) of your standards 
• Use examples to clarify abstract values 
• Use credible authorities for support 

3. Claim of Policy 

• an argument which asserts the implementation of a certain policy
• driven by the need to present procedural and organized solutions to problems

Proof requires: 

Making proposed action (clear),  need (justification), plan (must be workable), benefit (advantages) 

consider opposition / counter arguments. 

Logical Fallacies - errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument

Categories: 

1. Fallacies of Relevance – appeal to evidence or examples are not relevant to the argument at hand 
2. Component Fallacies - errors in inductive and deductive reasoning or in syllogistic terms that fail to overlap. 
3. Fallacies of Ambiguity -errors occur with ambiguous words or phrases, the meanings of which shift and change in the course of discussion. 
4. Fallacies of Omission - errors occur because the logician leaves out necessary material in an argument or misdirects others from missing information. 

Fallacies of Relevance

1. Appeal to Fear (Argumentum ad Baculum) - done by some form of threat, which may be to the person or may be to something about which they care. The threat may be physical, emotional or spiritual. 
2. Personal Attack (Argumentum ad Hominem) – refute an argument by attacking the character of a person instead of attacking ideas 
3. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam) - Gain agreement by sympathy or empathy 
4. Bandwagon/ Appeal to Common Belief (Argumentum ad Populum) – an argument is considered to be valid since it is what majority thinks ; use peer pressure instead of rational argument to get agreement 
5. Appeal to Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam) – occurs when argument quotes an expert who may not be qualified in the subject matter. The expert may not be named (and is hence an anonymous authority) or may be absent and unable to answer probing questions. 
6. Appeal to Tradition (Argumentum Ad Traditionem; aka Argumentum Ad Antiquitatem) - This line of thought asserts that a premise must be true because people have always believed it or done it. 

Component Fallacies 

1. Circular Reasoning - The so-called "final proof" relies on unproven evidence set forth initially as the subject of debate. 
2. Hasty Generalization - mistaken use of inductive reasoning when there are too few samples to prove a point. Ex. Mary is Filipino. Filipinos are music lovers. Mary is a music lover. 
3. False Dilemma – presents only two options despite of multiple possibilities 
4. Post Hoc (After this) – The sequence of things proves cause. Ex. I drank water before I got sick. It must have been the water that caused my sickness. 
5. Red Herring -a deliberate attempt to change the subject or divert the argument from the real question at issue to some side-point 
6. Straw Man – overstating, exaggerating, or over-simplifying the arguments of the opposing side Ex. One who does not approve minimum wage increase hates the poor. 
7. Non Sequitor (It does not follow) – skips or ignore causes before the result 
8. Slippery Slope - simply assumes that, once the nose is in, the rest must follow Ex. If we ban internet cafes then students will fail their subjects. 

Fallacies of Ambiguity 

1. Equivocation (terminologies and definition) 
2. Composition (parts to its whole) 
3. Division (whole to its parts) 

Fallacies of Omission 

1. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam) - fallacy of assuming something is true simply because it hasn't been proven false 
2. Complex Question - Phrasing a question or statement in such as way as to imply another unproven statement is true without evidence or discussion 

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Patterns of Development

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

• DEFINITION – clarifies and explains concepts through the use of illustrations, examples, and descriptions

Example:

Social engineering is defined as any method which tricks people to share personal information through the use of technology. The ‘social’ component in this scheme means that there is reliance on various psychological tricks and on the gullibility of users rather than technical hacking. Social engineering also refers to various malicious acts online, such as phishing spamming, and pretexting.

Signal Words

Is defined as               refers to          to define

As defined                   means             to illustrate 

• EXEMPLIFICATION – presents the general statement and then provides specific and concrete examples to expound on the main idea

Example:

 While the Internet offers so many benefits to man, it also has its downsides. One of these is phishing, which refers to the act of obtaining personal information, such as passwords and credit card details, through online means. In other words, phishing is a form of cybercrime. As an example, let us consider the case of Mr. X. he received an email stating that his Gmail account has been compromised and that he needed to click a link to update personal information. If Mr. X clicks on the link, his personal information will be illegally acquired by cybercriminals.

Signal Words

After all, for instance, namely, that is, as an example, in other words, put another way,  to be specific, consider the following, in particular, specifically, to clarify, for example, in short, stated differently, to illustrate

• DESCRIPTION – provides details on the idea by using either sensory or spatial pattern; in the sensory pattern, ideas are arranged based on one or all of the five senses; a spatial pattern arranges ideas by location or physical space

Example:

 A laptop is one of the greatest inventions of the modern era. It is a lightweight device that can save a vast amount of information. The screen, touchpad, speakers, keyboard, battery, and AC adapter are the basic parts of a laptop. The most noticeable part of a laptop is its keyboard. On it are the keys needed to enter data into the computer. Near the keyboard you will find a smooth, rectangular surface which acts like a desktop computer mouse – that is the touchpad. At the bottom part of this rectangular surface, you will see buttons that operate like a mouse button. Below the keyboard and touchpad, built into the laptop itself are the speakers which allow you to hear sounds and music. Found at the back of the keyboard is the battery; it serves as the lifeline of the computer. Finally, a laptop also comes with an AC adapter which charges the batter and serves as the source of electric power when it is plugged in.

Signal Words

Above, across, adjacent to, against, alongside, amidst, around, away from, back of, behind (prepositions)

• CHRONOLOGY/ PROCEDURE – organizes ideas or events according to time

            Narration – sequences events in order in which they occurred in time

            Process – organizes details based on stages or steps

Example:

Narration: Ondoy began to develop from an active low pressure area to a tropical cyclone on September 24, 2009. The following day, PAGASA raised storm signals all over the Philippine archipelago. At that point, signal no. 2 was raised in Catanduanes and other parts of Luzon. By Saturday morning, reports flooding started to pour in. meanwhile, president Arroyo declared state of calamity in Metro Manila. Immediately after President Declaration, various government agencies began the rescue and relief operations. As soon as Typhoon Ondoy exited the Philippines, more and more relief and rescue operations were conducted.

Process: During the flooding, one thing that may probably save your life is an improvised flotation device. You can make one using your pants. First, knot off the leg holes of your pants. Then, hold open waist and swing the pants around to fill the legs with air. Promptly knot off the waist to trap the air and hold the pants underwater so that the air would not escape.

Signal Words

About, after, afterwards, as soon as, at, at this/that point, before, during, eventually, finally, first, immediately, in the meantime, later, meanwhile, next, next week, presently, prior to, second, soon, then, till, today, tomorrow, until, when, yesterday

• LISTING – organizes ideas using enumeration but does not have the element of time

Example:

 Picking the right career is such a daunting task because it pits passion against reality. Would you choose the profession you love or would you choose a more lucrative profession? Some find a hard time choosing at first, so do not be surprised if you see people shift careers several times before they achieve success. On this note, here are some tips to help you choose the right career. Identify your interest. Are you fascinated with numbers, arts, sciences, human behavior, computer technology, or teaching? Try to process as well you reason for choosing a particular career; you can also factor in the financial component during this stage. Another thing that you can do is to focus on and learn everything about your chosen career. If you want to be a doctor, know exactly what a doctor does and check whether you can handle this type of profession. In addition, try to visualize yourself five or ten years from now, and develop plan to achieve the goal in your mind. Remember not to rely on luck when it comes to your career; instead, make reasoned decisions based on what you want.

Signal Words

Additionally, again, along with, also, and, and then, another, as well, besides, equally important, further, furthermore, in addition, in the same way, likewise, moreover, next together with

• COMPARISON-CONTRAST – organizes ideas based on how events, places, people, things, and concepts are similar to or different from one another

Example:

 Are you not sure yet which phone to buy? To help you decide, this review will inspect the basic similarities and differences of the flagship phones of two giant companies: Apple’s iPhone 6 and Samsung’s Galaxy S5. Both brag to be the best smart phones in the market to date. While these state-of-the-art phones have similarities in the form of their sleek design, multi-touch touch screen, and multimedia features, they have their distinctive features as well. First, Galaxy S5 has a larger screen at 5.1 inches as compared to iPhone 6’s 4.7 inches. As for the operating system, iPhone 6 Uses iOS (8.x) while S5 uses Android (5.0, 4.4.2). In terms of the camera, S5 has a 2.1 megapixel front-facing camera which is higher than iPhone’s 1.2 megapixels. Unlike S5, iPhone’s battery is not user-replaceable and has a shorter talk time, but when it comes to built-in storage, iPhone 6 outperforms S5. Now that you know the basic differences of the two phones, you can decide!

Signal Words

Also, as, both, equally, in a similar fashion, in comparison, in the same way, like, likewise, similarly

Although, and yet, as opposed to, but, conversely, counter to, despite, even so, even though, in contrast

• CLASSIFICATION & DIVISION – organizes ideas into categories of divisions based on criteria and standards; superordinate & subordinate

Example:

 Earthquakes can be classified into three main types based on the plate movements. The first type is known as a convergent boundary. Also known as destructive plate boundary, this type of earthquake happens when two tectonic plates move toward one another and collide. The second type of earthquake is called the divergent boundary. During this type of earthquake, two plates are forced to move away from each other resulting in a rift zone. The last type is called the conservative plate boundary or transform fault. During this type of earthquake, two tectonic plates slide past one another.

Signal Words

Another, classified as, final type, one kind, the first category, the last group, the next part

• CAUSE AND EFFECT – details based on the cause, reason, and the result or consequences of a certain phenomenon

Example:

 The advancement in technology and economy has created major changes in modern society. One of these changes is globalization. As we know, globalization has affected the world in many ways. First, it served as a catalyst to worldwide trading, thus allowing countries to access foreign products. Although this had positive effects, it also posed a real threat to the merchandise of local traders. Second, globalization affected the financial market. As a result, different countries had more access to funds, and the exchange in national currencies dramatically increased. Finally globalization also led to the privatization of various facilities, such as public health institutions. These institutions were being privatized due to the idea that the private sector can better manage and provide health services. In consequence, health policies become more and more of a commodity on a global scale.

Signal Words

As, because, being that, due to, for, for the reason that, in that, in view of, in as much as, one reason

• PROBLEM-SOLUTION – organizes ideas into problems and proposed solutions

Example:

 Today, most of the energy resources we have are generated from coal, oil, and natural gas. However, these resources are limited. If continuously consumed at an alarming rate, fossil fuels necessary for generating power to operate vehicles and factories will run out before long. Nonetheless, this problem can be resolved through the use of alternative sources of energy and conservation efforts. First, using alternative sources of energy such as solar energy and fusion energy would lessen population. These alternatives are actually more accessible and cost-efficient. Although there are some potential risks in using fusion energy, these risks can be mitigated by implementing strict safety measures. The second solution that governments can adopt is the enhancement of conservation efforts. To do this, the governments need to make the public more aware of the benefits of conservation, as well as ways of conserving energy, such as recycling. Laws can also be passed to mandate the public and all stakeholders to recycle energy.

Signal Words

But, first, second, nonetheless, one reason of the, one solution is, one way is, the problem, the solution

• PERSUASION - shows how a set of evidence leads to a logical conclusion or argument; presents issue, the position, and the supporting evidence

Example:

 Euthanasia or mercy killing has been a widely debated issue. It is an act to end a person’s life to alleviate the suffering brought about by a terminal or grave illness. While it may be supported by some, mercy killing is not only an unethical medical practice, it is also a crime. After all, on the most basic level, euthanasia still takes a life. In fact, majority of the countries in the world, including those that have legalized it, consider it as homicide. Aside from being a crime, euthanasia is unethical in the medical context because it violates the principle of “primum non nocore” which means “first, do no harm.” In their code of ethics, doctors have the responsibility of saving lives, not destroying them, which is why euthanasia can never be acceptable.

Signal Words

Indeed, to repeat, accordingly, thus, admittedly, needless to say, obviously

Emphasizing a point, concluding and summarizing, conceding a point

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